The Balfour Declaration 1917
Long-lasting conflict ~ some of the history
On 7 October 2023 Palestinian group Hamas1 launched Operation Al-Aqsa Flood inside Israel, killing dozens and taking hostages in a shocking assault - What happened in Israel? A breakdown of how Hamas attack unfolded | Israel-Palestine conflict News | Al Jazeera.
The seemingly endless conflict in this region is traceable back over a century.
Here is a “Tweet” I saw recently on “X” (formerly Twitter) -
The words that struck me were - “This little letter created a long-lasting conflict and massacre of innocent people to this day."
But what was the Balfour Declaration? First, let’s look at some events before the declaration.
Zionism:
The full story perhaps begins centuries ago but, for present purposes, it will suffice to go back to 1897 when a remarkable event took place in Basel, Switzerland. This was the first Zionist Congress - please see Theodor Herzl, myth, reality, and the First Zionist Congress 125 years later | Bonnie K. Goodman | The Blogs (timesofisrael.com).
The blog tells the story of Theodor Herzl (1860 - 1904) who, in 1896, wrote “Der Judenstaat” (The Jewish State) setting out ideas for political Zionism to create a socialist and secular state. Herzl addressed the Congress and referred to a hope for Jewish settlement in Palestine.
The idea was taken up by some notable people in the UK including Chaim Weizsmann (1874-1952) and Lord Walter Rothschild (1868-1937). Such individuals were politically influential in the years prior to and during World War 1.
World War 1
David Lloyd-George (1863-1945) became Prime Minister in December 1916, when the United Kingdom was totally engaged in World War 1 and the nation had suffered massive casualties particularly during the 1916 summer at the Battle of the Somme. On any objective view, the war was not going well for the Allied Powers - Britain (and its Empire), France and the Russian Empire (with Tsar Nicholas II at it head).2
The Allied Powers were pitted against the Central Powers - Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
The Ottoman Empire, as it was in 1912, is shown here -
As can be seen in green, the Ottoman Empire extended through modern-day Turkey, Lebanon and southwards through the region of Palestine3 and into the western part of Saudi Arabia.
In 1917, there were to be major developments in the war. The Russian Revolutions brought the centuries-old Tsarist regime to a bloody end with the consequence that, by December 1917, Russia was de facto out of the war - Russia quits war | Map and Timeline (history-maps.com).4 This tipped the balance in favour of the remaining Central powers.
The other major development was the entry of the United States of America into the war from 2 April 1917 - Why Did the US Enter World War I? (history.com). By 1918 this tipped the balance in favour of the Allied powers and led to the Armistice of November 1918.
Sykes-Picot:
The Sykes-Picot Agreement of May 1916 (also called Asia Minor Agreement) was a secret convention made during World War I between Great Britain and France, with the assent of imperial Russia, for the post-war dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. In modern parlance, the agreement was essentially a “carve-up.” This was negotiated during the administration of Prime Minister Herbert Asquith (1852-1928) in which the Foreign Secretary was Edward Grey (1862-1933).5
Negotiations were begun in November 1915, and the final agreement took its name from the chief negotiators of Britain and France - diplomats Sir Mark Sykes (1879-1919) and François Georges-Picot (1870-1951). Sergey Dimitriyevich Sazonov (1860-1927) represented Russia, the third member of the Triple Entente.
The article - How Soviet Russia and Pravda Spoiled the 'Secret' Sykes-Picot Agreement (The Atlantic) - tells how Russia, after the revolutions of 1917, published the Agreement much to the embarrassment of Britain and France . To quote the article …
The publication of the secret agreement was an embarrassment to the Allies, showing them carving up the Middle East, and in particular showing Britain making incompatible promises to Hussein6 and the Arabs as well as to the Zionists.
See also McMahon, Sykes, Balfour: Contradictions and Concealments in British Palestine Policy 1915-1917 | Balfour Project
There is an enormous volume of literature about the Sykes-Picot agreement which has, in general, been condemnatory. Links to some of this are included below.
Arthur Balfour:
Following Lloyd-George becoming Prime Minister in December 1916, the former Prime Minister Arthur Balfour (1848-1930) was appointed Foreign Secretary.7 On 2 November 1917, what has since been known as The Balfour Declaration was issued.8
The declaration appeared in a letter from Balfour to Lord Walter Rothschild, then president of the British Zionist Federation.9 The main body of the letter made it clear that the declaration was the result of a Cabinet decision. but it is inconceivable that the declaration was made without the knowledge and agreement of allies.
The actual Declaration stated -
"His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country."
The Declaration was not a treaty but it clearly set a British government foreign policy aim, endorsed by the Cabinet, to use “best endeavours” to create a “home” for the Jewish people in Palestine. (The word “home” was deliberately chosen).
It is also crucial to note that the declaration did not only refer to a “home for the Jewish people” but also stated that the rights and political status of non-Jewish communities in Palestine would not be prejudiced.
An interesting aspect of the declaration is that it was decided by the Cabinet and neither the UK Parliament nor the non-Jewish inhabitants of Palestine were consulted.10
The end of war and the mandate:
At the end of World War 1, a mandate system was created by the League of Nations and, from 24 July 1922, Great Britain was entrusted with the Mandate for Palestine - History & Overview of the British Palestine Mandate (jewishvirtuallibrary.org).
The text of the mandate included Article 2 -
“The Mandatory shall be responsible for placing the country under such political, administrative and economic conditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home, as laid down in the preamble, and the development of self governing institutions, and also for safeguarding the civil and religious rights of all the inhabitants of Palestine, irrespective of race and religion.”
Essentially, the Balfour Declaration therefore became a key part of the mandate under which Britain was to govern Palestine.
The years of the mandate are well described in this “Balfour Project” video (18 mins) - Britain in Palestine 1917-1948 - YouTube.
The video “investigates the contradictory promises and actions which defined British Mandatory rule in Palestine and laid the groundwork for the Nakba (the catastrophe) and the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. The roots of the contemporary social, political, economic, and environmental landscape of Palestine and Israel can be traced back to this period, making it essential viewing for understanding Britain’s legacy in the region and the situation on the ground today.”
Also see On British colonialism, antisemitism, and Palestinian rights | Middle East Eye.
End of mandate and Israel:
On 15 May 1947, the UN General Assembly created a Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) in response to a United Kingdom government request that the General Assembly "make recommendations under article 10 of the Charter, concerning the future government of Palestine."
UNSCOP issued a “majority” final report on 3 September 1947.11 UNSCOP proposed "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem."
On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly passed Resolution 181 (commonly known as the UN Partition Plan for Palestine) which recommended the adoption and implementation of a slightly modified version of the UNSCOP majority Partition Plan.
The partition set up by Resolution 181 is shown here -
Resolution 181 was adopted with 33 votes in favour, 13 against, and 10 abstentions. The UK abstained. However, the required two-thirds majority was obtained. Crucially, the resolution was rejected by the Palestinian Arabs. All members of the Arab League voted against.
Also on 29 November 1947, Britain announced the termination of its Mandate over Palestine, to take effect on 15 May 1948.
On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed.
Al-Nakba (catastrophe):
The article What happened in Palestine in 1948? states that - “as soon as the British Mandate expired, Zionist forces declared the establishment of the State of Israel, triggering the first Arab-Israeli war.
Zionist military forces expelled at least 750,000 Palestinians from their homes and lands and captured 78 percent of historic Palestine. The remaining 22 percent was divided into what are now the occupied West Bank and the besieged Gaza Strip.”
Conflict since 1948:
Events since 1948 are summarised in this article - Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Timeline | World101 (cfr.org)
and also
Timeline: The Arab Israeli conflict (ft.com)
There have been numerous attempts to resolve the situation and some of those are summarised by the BBC at History of Mid-East peace talks - BBC News 29 July 2013. The UK continues to support a two-State solution to the situation - Welcoming support for a peaceful two-state solution by Israeli and Palestinian leaders - GOV.UK 28 September 2022.
Final Notes:
The above is not intended to be a complete history and many details are omitted. The videos below provide further information.
At the time of World War 1, Britain made many contradictory promises which are summarised in this article - Britain’s Policy of Deceit | Balfour Project and the 1917 Balfour Declaration is seen by many as Britain’s broken promise - The Balfour Declaration: Britain’s Broken Promise (jpit.uk).
The promise in the declaration relating to the rights of non-Jewish communities was not fully honoured during the British mandate even though the mandate (Art 2) required it to be - On British colonialism, antisemitism, and Palestinian rights | Middle East Eye.
The consequences remain with us today though over the years since the formation of Israel there have been many other developments and numerous efforts to seek peaceful arrangements for the region - History of Mid-East peace talks - BBC News and American presidents have pushed for Mideast peace but progress is elusive : NPR.
The Balfour Declaration is an important part of the history and Britain’s involvement in the region resulted in conflict that has not been resolved in the 75 years since 1948. Nonetheless, the Balfour declaration ought not to be used as an excuse for the military conflict we witness today.
Materials:
The “dangers” of writing anything about “the Middle East” (an ill-defined term in itself) are set out well in this article by Ramzy Baroud - ‘Dos’ and ‘Don’ts’: Things I learned writing about the Middle East | Middle East Eye. I tried to bear his advice in mind !
Materials on Sykes-Picot include -
Sykes-Picot Agreement | Map, History, & Facts | Britannica
The Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) (jewishvirtuallibrary.org)
A century on: Why Arabs resent Sykes-Picot (aljazeera.com)
A century on: What remains of Sykes-Picot | Maps News | Al Jazeera
Explainer: what is the 100-year-old Sykes-Picot Agreement? (theconversation.com)
The Avalon Project : The Sykes-Picot Agreement : 1916 (yale.edu)
Materials on the Balfour Declaration include -
Balfour Declaration (history.com)
More than a century on: The Balfour Declaration explained | Features | Al Jazeera
Balfour Declaration - article for website Dec 2016 (balfourproject.org)
House of Commons 16 November 2016 - Centenary of the Balfour Declaration - Hansard - UK Parliament
The Balfour Declaration: Britain’s Broken Promise (jpit.uk)
Other links -
Israel - Facts, History & Conflicts | HISTORY
What is the Palestinian Authority and what is its relationship with Israel? | Palestinian Authority News | Al Jazeera
Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian (state.gov)
Britain & Palestine: The End Of The Mandate, & The Emergence Of Israel | HistoryExtra
Palestine and Britain: forgotten legacy of World War I that devastated the Middle East (theconversation.com)
On British colonialism, antisemitism, and Palestinian rights | Middle East Eye
Videos:
The Balfour Declaration Explained
Hamas (Harakat al-Muqawamah al-Islamiyyah) - is a proscribed group under the UK’s Terrorism Act 2000 - FACTSHEET: Proscription (Home Office) - and Proscribed terrorist groups or organisations - GOV.UK. Further information - see What is Hamas? Seven key questions answered (theconversation.com) and What Is Hamas? | Council on Foreign Relations (cfr.org).
Tsar Nicholas II (1868 -1918)
The region of Palestine is to be distinguished from the modern State of Palestine.
On 15 December 1917, an armistice was signed between the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic on the one side and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Kingdom of Bulgaria, the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire—the Central Powers—on the other. The armistice took effect two days later, on 17 December. By this agreement Russia de facto exited World War I, although fighting would briefly resume before the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on 3 March 1918, and Russia made peace.
Herbert Asquith 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith / Edward Grey 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon. Although the Sykes-Picot agreement is named after the negotiators, it is to the senior politicians of the day that the responsibility should attach.
Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz (1854-1931)
Balfour was Prime Minister from 1902 to 1905.
As Prime Minister and Head of the British Government, Lloyd-George ought to carry responsibility for the declaration but it will be Balfour who is forever associated with it.
ZFUK | Zionist Federation of United Kingdom & Ireland
The non-involvement of Parliament is explained by the fact that, under British constitutional arrangements, foreign policy is largely left in the hands of the executive. It is an area governed by Royal Prerogative powers though, in modern times, there is somewhat greater parliamentary involvement in the making of treaties.
The lack of parliamentary involvement in the Balfour Declaration is explained by the fact that, under British constitutional arrangements, foreign policy is largely left in the hands of the executive. It is an area essentially governed by Royal Prerogative powers which technically belong to the Crown but are, in practice, exercised by Ministers. Today, there is somewhat greater parliamentary oversight of foreign policy and of treaty-making.
A/364 of 3 September 1947 (archive.org)