Richard I and Saladin - Part 2
Part 2 of the story of the monumental clash involving two legendary figures of the 12th century
Part 1 of this Viewpoint looked at the general background to the Third Crusade and at the lives of Richard I of England and Saladin. Part 2 looks at the nature of medieval warfare and at the major events of the crusade.
Medieval war
War often involved close-quarter combat and armies suffered large numbers of casualties with the ultimate outcome depending significantly on the characters of the leaders involved.
The brutality of 12th century war is well-illustrated by the treatment of those captured with death being the most likely consequence but some captives were either held as hostages or sold into slavery. Occasionally, terms were agreed and captives were allowed to go free. In general, victorious leaders appear to have had little, if any, desire to devote manpower to managing large numbers of prisoners.
The First Crusade (1096 - 99) culminated in the capture by Crusaders of Jerusalem. There was a mass slaughter of Muslims though reports of numbers vary. The World History Encyclopedia website (The Capture of Jerusalem) notes - ‘ … Figures of 10,000 (William of Tyre), 65,000 (Mathew of Edessa) or 75,000 (Ibn al-Athir) killed are all very likely an exaggeration as a contemporary Muslim source (Ibn al-Arabi), with no motive for minimising the carnage, puts the figure at 3,000 of the city's probable 30,000 residents. Still, the barbarism of the Crusaders shocked even Christians, and the episode would never be entirely forgotten or forgiven by the Muslim states.’
After the Battle of Hattin (1187) the Crusader leader Guy of Lusignan (c1150 - 1194) was taken to Damascus as a prisoner and granted release in 1188. Other “noble” captives were eventually ransomed though one, Raynald of Chatillon (c1125 - 1187) , was executed either by Saladin personally or on his orders. It was said that Raynald's fate shocked Guy of Lusignan, but Saladin comforted him, saying that "A king does not kill a king, but that man's perfidy and insolence went too far." Some 200 of the Templar and Hospitaller Knights were executed and others sold into slavery. Captured turcopoles (locally recruited mounted archers employed by the crusader states) were also executed on Saladin's orders.
In October 1187, Jerusalem was surrendered to Saladin - Siege of Jerusalem (1187). The surrender was negotiated between Balian of Ibelin (c.1143 - 1193) and Saladin. On payment of ransom, Crusaders were allowed to leave the city. History tells that Balian informed Saladin that the people in Jerusalem refused to give up and would rather destroy the city and kill the inhabitants, including Muslims. It appears that Saladin did not wish to lose more Muslim lives than necessary and, of course, a military assault on the city would have resulted in losses within his own forces. Saladin’s decision appears both magnanimous and tactically sensible.
In 1191, during the Third Crusade, Acre fell to the Crusader armies. Richard I ordered the killing of some 2700 Muslim prisoners at a nearby site called Ayyadieh. This massacre will forever remain controversial and is discussed more fully below.
224 years after Ayyadieh, following the English victory at the Battle of Agincourt 1415, French prisoners were executed on the orders of King Henry V (1386 - 1422). It is said that Henry feared that the French were regrouping for a further attack. The exact number of prisoners killed is unclear but some reports state ‘several thousand.’
Such was the likely fate of those on the losing side of medieval warfare.
The Third Crusade
The port of Acre had major importance during the Crusades as a maritime foothold on the Mediterranean coast. The sea offered both protection and a route for supplies to reach the city. After the Battle of Hattin (July 1187), Acre capitulated to Saladin without a fight. Two years later, in August 1189, it was besieged by a force led by Guy of Lusignan (King of Jerusalem 1186 - 1192). His forces were, in turn, besieged by Saladin. This “double siege” was unique in the history of the crusades. Neither side secured any decisive victory and the siege became protracted.
Richard and his strong military force arrived, by sea, at Acre in June 1191 thereby ensuring crusader control of the port.1 The lengthy siege ended on 12 July 1191 and the garrison surrendered. An agreement had been negotiated though its precise terms have to be gleaned from various sources. It appears that the town and all ships in the harbour were to be forfeited to the Crusaders. The True Cross, taken by the Muslims at Hattin, was to be returned. Saladin would pay a sum of 200,000 dinars and some 1500 Christian prisoners would be released. These actions were to be accomplished within one month after the fall of the city. Richard would hold 2,700 Muslim prisoners as hostages until the terms were met.
Saladin agreed to pay the 200,000 dinars in three instalments. The first was paid on 11 August and some Christian prisoners were returned. Then there was delay and it appears that Richard grew impatient. Philip Augustus had returned to France and Richard was now the overall leader of the Crusaders.
It may be that the delay was brought about by Saladin seeking time to regroup his forces. Whatever the reason, Richard ordered some 2700 Muslim prisoners to be killed - Massacre at Ayyadieh. Saladin responded by some killing prisoners held by his forces.
From Acre, Richard proceeded south aiming to reach Jaffa - (now a southern part of Tel Aviv). The sea was to his right and Saladin’s forces to his left. The Crusader army maintained a defensive formation as it marched.
A major encounter took place at the Battle of Arsuf in September 1191 when the Crusader army defeated a significantly larger Muslim force. Whilst Richard would have preferred his force to remain together, the battle was notable for the Knights Hospitaller launching a charge at the Ayyubid army. Richard acted decisively and committed his entire force to support the attack.
Arsuf dented Saladin's reputation as an invincible warrior whilst proving Richard's skill as a courageous and able commander.
Study Identifies Site Where Crusader King Richard the Lionheart Defeated Saladin | Smart News| Smithsonian Magazine
Following Arsuf, the Crusaders reached Jaffa and time was spent rebuilding fortifications pre-emptively destroyed by Saladin.2 Holding Jaffa denied Saladin access to the coast and was strategically crucial for the onward march to Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Saladin proceeded eastwards to Jerusalem.
Richard proceeded cautiously. The distance Jaffa to Jerusalem is about 32 miles. By the end of October 1191, the Crusaders had taken the fortifications at Casal des Plaines3 and Casal Moyen, both of which had been tactically destroyed by Saladin. Time was taken to reinstate them.
The Crusaders reached Ramla on 17 November when the weather broke, halting their advance. The winter weather also caused some of Saladin’s forces to disperse but they were certainly likely to return the following year.
After Christmas, Richard continued and reached Bayt Nuba (about 12 miles from Jerusalem) on 3 January 1192. Just 5 days later he ordered a retreat and went to the ruined city of Ascalon - (Ashkelon on the map above).
The reason generally given for Richard’s decision to withdraw is that it was a straightforward response to the weather and matters such as deteriorating weaponry, supply problems, desertions, and also the effects of disease. Some of the Crusader leadership wished to press on but another view was that the city would be difficult to capture and, if the Crusaders succeeded, they would not be able to hold it against the inevitable return of Saladin’s army.
The conventional account may not necessarily be entirely accurate given that it does not fit the known character of Richard and his otherwise bold actions during the Crusade.
An article, written in 2016, discusses an alternative explanation - Why King Richard Did Not March on Jerusalem - article by Andrew Latham published in Crisis Magazine.
Latham’s argument is that Richard never wished to use force to take Jerusalem, preferring, if possible, to bring Saladin to a negotiated settlement that both Christians and Muslims could accept. It is certainly known that ‘lines of communication’ existed between Richard and Saladin - e.g. via Saladin’s brother (al-Adil).
There is also evidence that Richard wished to, at least, threaten Egypt which was Saladin’s principal source of wealth. Control of Ascalon was key to that and Richard went there after abandoning his first move toward Jerusalem.
Therefore, it may be that Richard agreed to approach Jerusalem because of pressure from those supporters who had vowed to get there but that was not his primary objective. When the opportunity came to do so he both renewed negotiations and continued his strategy of placing pressure on Saladin by holding Ascalon.
In June 1192, Richard made a second attempt to reach Jerusalem but this was also abandoned.
The final military encounter of the Third Crusade was the Battle of Jaffa in August 1192.4 Although largely a footnote among the greater events that unfolded during the Crusades, the battle was a decisive encounter in favour of the Crusaders, leading to a negotiated end to the immediate hostilities.
In September 1192, Richard and Saladin entered into the Treaty of Jaffa or Ramla bringing the Third Crusade to an end. This provided that the Muslims would retain control of Jerusalem but Christian pilgrims would have access to the city.5 The Crusader Kingdoms were also reduced to a thin sliver of land along the Mediterranean coast.
On 9 October, Richard left the Holy Land. It may be that he intended to return but his French holdings were precarious and required attention. He was destined never to revisit.
Many videos are available describing events in the Third Crusade including at least one discussing the Muslim perspective. Links are below.
Third Crusade Timeline - World History Encyclopedia
Third Crusade and Aftermath 1186 - 1197: Timeline of the Crusades (learnreligions.com)
Ayyadieh - August 1191 massacre of prisoners
Richard The Lionheart Massacres The Saracens, 1191 (eyewitnesstohistory.com)
The Ayyadieh massacre of Muslim prisoners remains the most controversial of the events of the Third Crusade. On Richard’s orders, some 2700 Muslim prisoners were killed outside Acre and in sight of the Muslim forces.
The Kurdish scholar Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad (1145 – 1234) had first-hand knowledge of Saladin’s campaigns and recorded that - “The crusaders brought out the Muslim prisoners bound in ropes. Then as one man they charged them and with stabbings and blows with the sword slew them in cold blood.”6
Saladin responded by having some 1600 Christian prisoners killed. A number of historical accounts tell that, as word of Ayyadieh spread, Christian prisoners in various other places were killed by way of reprisal.
As noted earlier, the surrender terms negotiated at Acre included payment of 200,000 dinars in three stages. Prisoners were held hostage to try to ensure fulfilment of the deal.
Shaddad wrote - ‘Richard sent a demand of what was due. Saladin replied - Choose one of two things - either send us back our comrades and receive the payment fixed for this term in which case we will give hostages to ensure the full execution of all that is left OR accept what we are going to send you today and in your turn give us hostages to keep until those of our comrades whom you hold prisoners are restored.’
According to Shaddad, Richard’s envoy replied - “Send us what was due for this term and in return we will give our solemn oath that your people shall be restored.” Saladin rejected this. If he delivered in full while his men were still held he would have had no “security against treachery on the part of the enemy.”
The whole appearance is that Richard had grown impatient with what he saw as delaying tactics on Saladin’s part. In his book “Saladin: Hero of Islam”, Geoffrey Hindley7 comments that the defenders of Acre were too numerous to be guarded and too professional to be returned to the enemy.
The slaughter took place outside the city in full view of Saladin’s army some of which tried, unsuccessfully, to intervene. A terrible dimension was added to Richard’s name but he had eliminated a fighting force that might have been able to escape and rejoin Saladin’s forces.
Today, we would see Richard’s actions as a war crime - a major breach of the Geneva Conventions. Such concepts did not exist at the time and we cannot judge participants in medieval warfare through that lens though, at the time, some considered the conduct to be reprehensible.
As Geoffrey Hindley notes, the courtesies of life between the two camps recovered though Saladin never agreed to a meeting with Richard.
The Massacre at Acre—Mark of a Blood-thirsty King? Jared Stroik
Shaddad’s account is still published - The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin or al-Nawadir al-Sultaniyya wa'l ... - Google Books
Overall
Richard and Saladin both possessed enormous physical courage combined with ability as military leaders and both men were capable of diplomacy. War, with its abundance of pitiless brutality, was fought according to the mores of the time. Both leaders could be cruel but the Ayyadieh massacre continues to blemish Richard’s name since it was justifiable, if at all, only on the basis of military expediency. It is of course certain that Saladin never forgot it and, despite his ability to be generous, probably never forgave it.
Richard did not reach Jerusalem and may, though it is not certain, have come to the view that it was better to extricate himself from the Holy Land as he ultimately did with the Treaty of Raffa. After all, he had pressing business to attend to in France and could not have remained in the Holy Land indefinitely.
Richard’s campaign can also be seen as an early intervention by England in foreign affairs although religion and papal authority played an enormous part in the King’s decision to “take the Cross.”
As for England, Richard seems to have had little interest in what he referred to as a cold and rainy place though, doubtless, the revenue came in useful! He spent only 6 months of his 10 year reign in the country. Its administration was conducted by able officials operating centrally and at county level. He was a great military leader with an abundance of physical courage. For those reasons, he will always be known as Coeur de Lion.
Saladin appears as a man of honour with respect for the concept of mercy within the teachings of Islam. A truly remarkable man.
يظهر صلاح الدين كرجل شرف مع احترام مفهوم الرحمة في تعاليم الإسلام. رجل رائع حقا.
Videos and other material
ARSUF
Profile of Saladin, Hero of Islam (thoughtco.com)
Saladin | Biography, Achievements, Crusades, & Facts | Britannica
Third Crusade Timeline - World History Encyclopedia
Third Crusade – Sources for Crusade History (dartmouth.edu)
The Crusade of Frederick Barbarossa.pdf
Siege of Acre (1189–1191) - Wikipedia
The Siege of Acre, 1189-91 CE - World History Encyclopedia
The Concept of Mercy in Islam - Quran Majeed Blog
Richard’s first landfall was at Tyre where he was refused entry. He then sailed south to Acre.
Such pre-emptive action is commonplace in war. For example, see the actions by British forces in Burma during World War 2 - Burmah Oil v Lord Advocate [1965] AC 75 Case Summary (oxbridgenotes.co.uk)
Battle of Jaffa (1192) - Wikipedia
Access to the various Holy places in Jerusalem would, to this day, have to part of any peace-settlement between Palestine and Israel
Other accounts refer to the prisoners being beheaded.
Saladin, Hero of Islam by Geoffrey Hindley. Pen and Sword Military Books. ISBN 978 1 84884 203 8